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Sabtu, 10 November 2012

Subjunctive



The structure of the subjunctive is extremely simple. For all verbs except the past tense of be, the subjunctive is the same as the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to"):
be (past)
be (present)
all other verbs (past & present)
I were
you were
he, she, it were
we were
you were
they were
I be
you be
he, she, it be
we be
you be
they be
I work
you work
he, she, it work
we work
you work
they work
 
The subjunctive does not change according to person (I, you, he etc).
  • Use of the Subjunctive
We use subjunctives mainly when talking about events that are not certain to happen. For example, we use the subjunctive when talking about events that somebody:
  • wants to happen
  • anticipates will happen
  • imagines happening
Look at these examples:
  • The President requests that you be present at the meeting.
  • It is vital that you be present at the meeting.
  • If you were at the meeting, the President would be happy.
The subjunctive is typically used after two structures:
  • the verbs: ask, command, demand, insist, propose, recommend, request, suggest + that
  • the expressions: it is desirable, essential, important, necessary, vital + that
Here are some examples with the subjunctive:
  • The manager insists that the car park be locked at night.
  • The board of directors recommended that he join the company.
  • It is essential that we vote as soon as possible.
  • It was necessary that every student submit his essay by the weekend.
Notice that in these structures the subjunctive is always the same. It does not matter whether the sentence is past or present. Look at these examples:
  • Present: The President requests that they stop the occupation.
  • Past: The President requested that they stop the occupation.
  • Present: It is essential that she be present.
  • Past: It was essential that she be present.
The use of the subjunctive as above is more common in American English than in English, where should + infinitive is often used:
  • The manager insists that the car park should be locked at night.
  • It was essential that we should vote as soon as possible.
We usually use the subjunctive were instead of "was" after if (and other words with similar meaning). Look at these sentences:
  • If I were you, I would ask her.
  • Suppose she were  here. What would you say?

  • Why do we say "I were", "he were"?
We sometimes hear things like "if I were you, I would go" or "if he were here, he would tell you". Normally, the past tense of the verb "to be" is: I was, he was. But the if I were you structure does not use the past simple tense of the verb "to be". It uses the past subjunctive of the verb "to be". In the following examples, you can see that we often use the subjunctive form were instead of "was" after:
  • if
  • as if
  • wish
  • suppose
Formal

(The were form is correct at all times.)
Informal

(The was form is possible in informal, familiar conversation.)
If I were younger, I would go.
If I was younger, I would go.
If he weren't so mean, he would buy one for me.
If he wasn't so mean, he would buy one for me.
I wish I weren't so slow!
I wish I wasn't so slow!
I wish it were longer.
I wish it was longer.
It's not as if I were ugly.
It's not as if I was ugly.
She acts as if she were Queen.
She acts as if she was Queen.
If I were you, I should tell her.
Note: We do not normally say "if I was you", even in familiar conversation.
Some fixed expressions use the subjunctive. Here are some examples:
  • Long live the King!
  • God bless America!
  • Heaven forbid!
  • Be that as it may, he still wants to see her.
  • Come what may, I will never forget you.
  • We are all citizens of the world, as it were.

Definite and Indefinite Articles



  • An article is a kind of adjective which is always used with and gives some information about a noun.  There are only two articles a and the, but they are used very often and are important for using English accurately.
  • The word a (which becomes an when the next word begins with a vowel - a, e, i, o, u) is called the indefinite article because the noun it goes with is indefinite or general.  The meaning of the article a is similar to the number one, but one is stronger and gives more emphasis.  It is possible to say I have a book or I have one book, but the second sentence emphasizes that I do not have two or three or some other number of books.
  • The word the is known as the definite article and indicates a specific thing.  The difference between the sentences I sat on a chair and I sat on the chair is that the second sentence refers to a particular, specific chair, not just any chair.
  • Many nouns, especially singular forms of countable nouns which you will learn about later, must have an article.  In English, it is not possible to say I sat on chair without an article, but  a demonstrative or possessive adjective can be used instead of an article as in the sentences I sat on that chair and I sat on his chair.
  • Whenever you see an article, you will find a noun with it.  The noun may be the next word as inthe man or there may be adjectives and perhaps adverbs between the article and the noun as in the very angry, young man.




Here are the rules for when to use "A, An or The":
  • a = indefinite article (not a specific object, one of a number of the same objects) with consonants
    She has a dog.
    I work in a factory.
  • an = indefinite article (not a specific object, one of a number of the same objects) with vowels (a,e,i,o,u)
    Can I have an apple?
    She is an English teacher.
  • the = definite article (a specific object that both the person speaking and the listener know)
    The car over there is fast.
    The teacher is very good, isn't he?
  • The first time you speak of something use "a or an", the next time you repeat that object use "the".
    I live in a house. The house is quite old and has four bedrooms.
    I ate in a Chinese restaurant. The restaurant was very good.
  • DO NOT use an article with countries, states, counties or provinces, lakes and mountains except when the country is a collection of states such as "The United States".
    He lives in Washington near Mount Rainier.
    They live in northern British Columbia.
  • Use an article with bodies of water, oceans and seas -
    My country borders on the Pacific Ocean
  • DO NOT use an article when you are speaking about things in general
    I like Russian tea.
    She likes reading books.
  • DO NOT use an article when you are speaking about meals, places, and transport
    He has breakfast
    at home.
    I go to university.
    He comes to work by taxi.

Comparison of adjectives


There are three forms of comparison:
- positive
- comparative
- superlative

A - Comparison with -er/-est
clean - cleaner - (the) cleanest
We use -er/-est with the following adjectives:
1) Adjectives with one syllable
positive
comparative
superlative
clean
cleaner
cleanest
new
newer
newest
cheap
cheaper
cheapest

2) Adjectives with two syllables and the following endings:
2 - 1) Adjectives with two syllables, ending in -y
positive
comparative
superlative
dirty
dirtier
dirtiest
easy
easier
easiest
happy
happier
happiest
pretty
prettier
prettiest
2 - 2) Adjectives with two syllables, ending in -er
positive
comparative
superlative
clever
cleverer
cleverest
2 - 3) Adjectives with two syllables, ending in -le
positive
comparative
superlative
simple
simpler
simplest
2 - 4) Adjectives with two syllables, ending in -ow
positive
comparative
superlative
narrow
narrower
narrowest

3) Spelling of the adjectives using the endings -er/-est

positive
comparative
superlative
comment
large
larger
largest
leave out the silent -e
big
bigger
biggest
Double the consonant after short vowel
sad
sadder
saddest
dirty
dirtier
dirtiest
Change -y to -i (consonant before -y)
shy
shyer
shyest
Here -y is not changed to -i.
(although consonant before -y)


B - Comparison with more - most
positive
comparative
superlative
difficult
more difficult
(the) most difficult
all adjectives with more than one syllable (except some adjectives with two syllables - see
2 - 1 to 2 - 4)


C - Irregular adjectives
positive
comparative
superlative
comment
good
better
best

bad
worse
worst

much
more
most
uncountable nouns
many
more
most
countable nouns
little
less
least

little
smaller
smallest



D - Special adjectives
Some adjectives have two possible forms of comparison (-er/est and more/most).
positive
comparative
superlative
clever
cleverer / more clever
cleverest / most clever
common
commoner / more common
commonest / most common
likely
likelier / more likely
likeliest / most likely
pleasant
pleasanter / more pleasant
pleasantest / most pleasant
polite
politer / more polite
politest / most polite
quiet
quieter / more quiet
quietest / most quiet
simple
simpler / more simple
simplest / most simple
stupid
stupider / more stupid
stupidest / most stupid
subtle
subtler / more subtle
subtlest / most subtle
sure
surer / more sure
surest / most sure


E - Difference in meaning with adjectives:
positive
comparative
superlative
comment
far
farther
farthest
distance
further
furthest
distance or
time
late
later
latest

latter
x

x
last

old
older
oldest
people and things
elder
eldest
people (family)
near
nearer
nearest
distance
x
next
order